Systems Engineering Art and Science in an International Context

Interdisciplinary field of engineering

Systems technology techniques are used in complex projects: spacecraft design, computer chip pattern, robotics, software integration, and bridge edifice. Systems applied science uses a host of tools that include modeling and simulation, requirements assay and scheduling to manage complexity.

Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary field of engineering science and engineering direction that focuses on how to design, integrate, and manage complex systems over their life cycles. At its core, systems engineering utilizes systems thinking principles to organize this torso of knowledge. The private effect of such efforts, an engineered system, can be defined as a combination of components that work in synergy to collectively perform a useful function.

Issues such every bit requirements engineering, reliability, logistics, coordination of different teams, testing and evaluation, maintainability and many other disciplines necessary for successful organization design, evolution, implementation, and ultimate decommission become more than difficult when dealing with big or complex projects. Systems applied science deals with work-processes, optimization methods, and hazard direction tools in such projects. It overlaps technical and human-centered disciplines such every bit industrial engineering, process systems engineering, mechanical technology, manufacturing engineering science, production applied science, control engineering, software engineering, electrical engineering science, cybernetics, aerospace engineering, organizational studies, ceremonious applied science and projection direction. Systems engineering ensures that all likely aspects of a projection or organization are considered and integrated into a whole.

The systems applied science procedure is a discovery process that is quite unlike a manufacturing process. A manufacturing procedure is focused on repetitive activities that accomplish high quality outputs with minimum cost and time. The systems engineering process must brainstorm by discovering the real problems that need to be resolved, and identifying the near probable or highest bear upon failures that can occur – systems engineering involves finding solutions to these problems.

History [edit]

The term systems engineering tin be traced back to Bong Telephone Laboratories in the 1940s.^[1] The need to identify and manipulate the properties of a system as a whole, which in circuitous engineering science projects may greatly differ from the sum of the parts' properties, motivated various industries, specially those developing systems for the U.Due south. military, to apply the discipline.^[2] ^[iii]

When it was no longer possible to rely on design evolution to improve upon a system and the existing tools were not sufficient to run across growing demands, new methods began to exist developed that addressed the complexity directly.^[4] The continuing development of systems engineering comprises the development and identification of new methods and modeling techniques. These methods aid in a better comprehension of the design and developmental control of engineering science systems every bit they grow more circuitous. Popular tools that are often used in the systems technology context were developed during these times, including USL, UML, QFD, and IDEF0.

In 1990, a professional club for systems applied science, the National Quango on Systems Engineering (NCOSE), was founded past representatives from a number of U.Due south. corporations and organizations. NCOSE was created to accost the need for improvements in systems engineering practices and didactics. As a result of growing involvement from systems engineers outside of the U.S., the proper name of the organization was changed to the International Quango on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) in 1995.^[5] Schools in several countries offer graduate programs in systems technology, and continuing education options are besides available for practicing engineers.^[vi]

Concept [edit]

Some definitions
Simon Ramo considered by some to be a founder of modern systems applied science defined the discipline equally: "...a branch of engineering which concentrates on the blueprint and application of the whole equally distinct from the parts, looking at a problem in its entirety, taking business relationship of all the facets and all the variables and linking the social to the technological."^[seven] — Conquering Complication, 2004.
"An interdisciplinary approach and means to enable the realization of successful systems"^[viii] — INCOSE handbook, 2004.
"System engineering is a robust arroyo to the design, creation, and functioning of systems. In simple terms, the approach consists of identification and quantification of arrangement goals, creation of alternative organization design concepts, performance of design trades, option and implementation of the all-time pattern, verification that the pattern is properly built and integrated, and mail service-implementation assessment of how well the arrangement meets (or met) the goals."^[9] — NASA Systems Applied science Handbook, 1995.
"The Art and Scientific discipline of creating effective systems, using whole system, whole life principles" OR "The Art and Scientific discipline of creating optimal solution systems to circuitous bug and problems"^[10] — Derek Hitchins, Prof. of Systems Engineering, onetime president of INCOSE (UK), 2007.
"The concept from the technology standpoint is the evolution of the engineering scientist, i.east., the scientific generalist who maintains a broad outlook. The method is that of the team approach. On large-calibration-organization bug, teams of scientists and engineers, generalists as well every bit specialists, exert their joint efforts to find a solution and physically realize it...The technique has been variously chosen the systems approach or the team development method."^[xi] — Harry H. Goode & Robert E. Machol, 1957.
"The systems engineering method recognizes each arrangement is an integrated whole even though composed of diverse, specialized structures and sub-functions. Information technology further recognizes that any system has a number of objectives and that the balance between them may differ widely from system to system. The methods seek to optimize the overall organization functions co-ordinate to the weighted objectives and to attain maximum compatibility of its parts."^[12] — Systems Engineering Tools by Harold Chestnut, 1965.

Systems engineering signifies only an approach and, more than recently, a discipline in engineering. The aim of education in systems engineering is to formalize diverse approaches just and in doing so, place new methods and enquiry opportunities similar to that which occurs in other fields of engineering. Equally an arroyo, systems engineering is holistic and interdisciplinary in flavour.

Origins and traditional scope [edit]

The traditional scope of engineering science embraces the conception, design, development, production and performance of physical systems. Systems engineering, equally originally conceived, falls within this scope. "Systems engineering", in this sense of the term, refers to the building of engineering concepts.

Development to broader scope [edit]

The use of the term "systems engineer" has evolved over time to embrace a wider, more holistic concept of "systems" and of engineering processes. This development of the definition has been a field of study of ongoing controversy,^[13] and the term continues to apply to both the narrower and broader scope.

Traditional systems engineering was seen as a co-operative of engineering in the classical sense, that is, every bit applied only to physical systems, such as spacecraft and shipping. More than recently, systems technology has evolved to a take on a broader meaning especially when humans were seen as an essential component of a system. Peter Checkland, for example, captures the broader significant of systems technology by stating that 'technology' "can exist read in its general sense; you can engineer a meeting or a political agreement."^[14] ^: 10

Consistent with the broader scope of systems engineering, the Systems Engineering Trunk of Cognition (SEBoK)^[15] has defined 3 types of systems engineering: (1) Product Systems Engineering science (PSE) is the traditional systems applied science focused on the pattern of physical systems consisting of hardware and software. (2) Enterprise Systems Engineering (ESE) pertains to the view of enterprises, that is, organizations or combinations of organizations, equally systems. (three) Service Systems Applied science (SSE) has to do with the engineering science of service systems. Checkland^[fourteen] defines a service system as a organization which is conceived as serving some other system. Most civil infrastructure systems are service systems.

Holistic view [edit]

Systems engineering focuses on analyzing and eliciting customer needs and required functionality early in the development bicycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while because the complete problem, the organisation lifecycle. This includes fully understanding all of the stakeholders involved. Oliver et al. claim that the systems engineering procedure can be decomposed into

a Systems Engineering Technical Process, and
a Systems Engineering Management Process.

Within Oliver'south model, the goal of the Management Process is to organize the technical endeavour in the lifecycle, while the Technical Procedure includes assessing available information, defining effectiveness measures, to create a behavior model, create a structure model, perform trade-off analysis, and create sequential build & test plan.^[16]

Depending on their application, although there are several models that are used in the manufacture, all of them aim to place the relation between the various stages mentioned above and incorporate feedback. Examples of such models include the Waterfall model and the VEE model (too called the V model). ^[17]

Interdisciplinary field [edit]

System development frequently requires contribution from diverse technical disciplines.^[18] By providing a systems (holistic) view of the development effort, systems engineering helps mold all the technical contributors into a unified team effort, forming a structured development process that gain from concept to production to performance and, in some cases, to termination and disposal. In an acquisition, the holistic integrative discipline combines contributions and balances tradeoffs among toll, schedule, and functioning while maintaining an acceptable level of chance roofing the unabridged life cycle of the detail.^[19]

This perspective is often replicated in educational programs, in that systems engineering courses are taught by faculty from other applied science departments, which helps create an interdisciplinary surround.^[20] ^[21]

Managing complexity [edit]

The need for systems technology arose with the increase in complexity of systems and projects, in turn exponentially increasing the possibility of component friction, and therefore the unreliability of the pattern. When speaking in this context, complexity incorporates not just applied science systems, just also the logical man arrangement of data. At the same fourth dimension, a system tin become more circuitous due to an increase in size as well as with an increase in the corporeality of data, variables, or the number of fields that are involved in the blueprint. The International Space Station is an instance of such a system.

The development of smarter command algorithms, microprocessor design, and analysis of ecology systems too come within the purview of systems engineering. Systems engineering encourages the use of tools and methods to better cover and manage complexity in systems. Some examples of these tools tin be seen here:^[22]

Organisation compages,
System model, Modeling, and Simulation,
Optimization,
Organization dynamics,
Systems assay,
Statistical assay,
Reliability analysis, and
Determination making

Taking an interdisciplinary approach to engineering systems is inherently complex since the behavior of and interaction among organization components is not always immediately well defined or understood. Defining and characterizing such systems and subsystems and the interactions amid them is i of the goals of systems engineering. In doing so, the gap that exists between informal requirements from users, operators, marketing organizations, and technical specifications is successfully bridged.

Scope [edit]

The scope of systems engineering activities^[23]

1 way to understand the motivation behind systems engineering science is to encounter it as a method, or practice, to identify and improve common rules that be within a wide variety of systems.^{[ citation needed ]} Keeping this in mind, the principles of systems technology – holism, emergent beliefs, boundary, et al. – can be applied to any system, complex or otherwise, provided systems thinking is employed at all levels.^[24] Too defence force and aerospace, many information and technology based companies, software evolution firms, and industries in the field of electronics & communications require systems engineers every bit part of their team.^[25]

An assay by the INCOSE Systems Technology center of excellence (SECOE) indicates that optimal endeavor spent on systems engineering is about 15–xx% of the full project effort.^[26] At the same fourth dimension, studies have shown that systems engineering essentially leads to reduction in costs amid other benefits.^[26] However, no quantitative survey at a larger calibration encompassing a wide multifariousness of industries has been conducted until recently. Such studies are underway to decide the effectiveness and quantify the benefits of systems engineering.^[27] ^[28]

Systems engineering encourages the utilise of modeling and simulation to validate assumptions or theories on systems and the interactions within them.^[29] ^[xxx]

Use of methods that allow early on detection of possible failures, in safety engineering, are integrated into the pattern procedure. At the same fourth dimension, decisions made at the first of a projection whose consequences are not conspicuously understood can have enormous implications later on in the life of a system, and it is the task of the modern systems engineer to explore these problems and make critical decisions. No method guarantees today's decisions will still be valid when a system goes into service years or decades after first conceived. However, there are techniques that back up the process of systems engineering science. Examples include soft systems methodology, Jay Wright Forrester'south System dynamics method, and the Unified Modeling Language (UML)—all currently existence explored, evaluated, and developed to support the applied science decision procedure.

Didactics [edit]

Education in systems technology is frequently seen as an extension to the regular engineering courses,^[31] reflecting the industry attitude that engineering students need a foundational background in ane of the traditional applied science disciplines (eastward.g., aerospace engineering, civil engineering, electric engineering, mechanical engineering, manufacturing engineering, industrial engineering science, chemical engineering)—plus practical, existent-world experience to be effective as systems engineers. Undergraduate university programs explicitly in systems engineering are growing in number but remain uncommon, the degrees including such material most often presented every bit a BS in Industrial Engineering science. Typically programs (either by themselves or in combination with interdisciplinary study) are offered get-go at the graduate level in both academic and professional tracks, resulting in the grant of either a MS/MEng or Ph.D./EngD caste.

INCOSE, in collaboration with the Systems Engineering Research Center at Stevens Institute of Engineering science maintains a regularly updated directory of worldwide academic programs at suitably accredited institutions.^[vi] Equally of 2017, information technology lists over 140 universities in Due north America offer more 400 undergraduate and graduate programs in systems engineering. Widespread institutional acquittance of the field equally a distinct subdiscipline is quite recent; the 2009 edition of the same publication reported the number of such schools and programs at but 80 and 165, respectively.

Instruction in systems technology tin can be taken as Systems-centric or Domain-axial:

Systems-centric programs treat systems engineering science every bit a separate discipline and virtually of the courses are taught focusing on systems engineering science principles and practise.
Domain-centric programs offer systems engineering as an choice that can be exercised with another major field in engineering.

Both of these patterns strive to brainwash the systems engineer who is able to oversee interdisciplinary projects with the depth required of a cadre-engineer.^[32]

Systems engineering science topics [edit]

Systems engineering tools are strategies, procedures, and techniques that help in performing systems engineering on a project or product. The purpose of these tools vary from database management, graphical browsing, simulation, and reasoning, to document production, neutral import/export and more than.^[33]

System [edit]

There are many definitions of what a system is in the field of systems engineering. Beneath are a few authoritative definitions:

ANSI/Environmental impact assessment-632-1999: "An assemblage of end products and enabling products to reach a given purpose."^[34]
DAU Systems Engineering Fundamentals: "an integrated blended of people, products, and processes that provide a adequacy to satisfy a stated need or objective."^[35]
IEEE Std 1220-1998: "A set up or arrangement of elements and processes that are related and whose beliefs satisfies customer/operational needs and provides for life bicycle sustainment of the products."^[36]
INCOSE Systems Applied science Handbook: "homogeneous entity that exhibits predefined behavior in the real globe and is composed of heterogeneous parts that do non individually exhibit that behavior and an integrated configuration of components and/or subsystems."^[37]
INCOSE: "A organization is a construct or collection of different elements that together produce results not obtainable by the elements alone. The elements, or parts, can include people, hardware, software, facilities, policies, and documents; that is, all things required to produce systems-level results. The results include system level qualities, backdrop, characteristics, functions, behavior and functioning. The value added by the system as a whole, beyond that contributed independently past the parts, is primarily created by the relationship among the parts; that is, how they are interconnected."^[38]
ISO/IEC 15288:2008: "A combination of interacting elements organized to attain one or more stated purposes."^[39]
NASA Systems Engineering Handbook: "(1) The combination of elements that function together to produce the adequacy to meet a need. The elements include all hardware, software, equipment, facilities, personnel, processes, and procedures needed for this purpose. (2) The end product (which performs operational functions) and enabling products (which provide life-bicycle support services to the operational stop products) that make upward a system."^[xl]

Systems technology processes [edit]

Systems engineering processes encompass all artistic, transmission and technical activities necessary to define the product and which need to be carried out to convert a organisation definition to a sufficiently detailed organization design specification for product manufacture and deployment. Design and evolution of a system tin be divided into four stages, each with different definitions:^[41]

job definition (informative definition),
conceptual phase (cardinal definition),
design stage (formative definition), and
implementation stage (manufacturing definition).

Depending on their application, tools are used for various stages of the systems engineering procedure:^[23]

Using models [edit]

Models play of import and diverse roles in systems engineering. A model tin be defined in several ways, including:^[42]

An abstraction of reality designed to reply specific questions well-nigh the real globe
An imitation, analogue, or representation of a real world process or structure; or
A conceptual, mathematical, or physical tool to assist a decision maker.

Together, these definitions are broad plenty to encompass physical engineering models used in the verification of a organization blueprint, as well equally schematic models like a functional menstruum block diagram and mathematical (i.east., quantitative) models used in the trade study process. This section focuses on the last.^[42]

The master reason for using mathematical models and diagrams in trade studies is to provide estimates of system effectiveness, performance or technical attributes, and cost from a set of known or estimable quantities. Typically, a collection of carve up models is needed to provide all of these outcome variables. The heart of any mathematical model is a prepare of meaningful quantitative relationships among its inputs and outputs. These relationships tin be as uncomplicated as adding up constituent quantities to obtain a full, or as complex as a prepare of differential equations describing the trajectory of a spacecraft in a gravitational field. Ideally, the relationships limited causality, not just correlation.^[42] Furthermore, fundamental to successful systems engineering activities are as well the methods with which these models are efficiently and effectively managed and used to simulate the systems. However, diverse domains frequently present recurring problems of modeling and simulation for systems applied science, and new advancements are aiming to crossfertilize methods amongst singled-out scientific and engineering communities, nether the title of 'Modeling & Simulation-based Systems Technology'.^[43]

Modeling formalisms and graphical representations [edit]

Initially, when the primary purpose of a systems engineer is to comprehend a circuitous problem, graphic representations of a organisation are used to communicate a system's functional and data requirements.^[44] Common graphical representations include:

Functional flow cake diagram (FFBD)
Model-based design
Data flow diagram (DFD)
N2 chart
IDEF0 diagram
Use case diagram
Sequence diagram
Block diagram
Bespeak-menstruation graph
USL part maps and type maps
Enterprise architecture frameworks

A graphical representation relates the various subsystems or parts of a organisation through functions, data, or interfaces. Any or each of the in a higher place methods are used in an industry based on its requirements. For instance, the N2 chart may be used where interfaces between systems is important. Function of the blueprint stage is to create structural and behavioral models of the organization.

Once the requirements are understood, information technology is now the responsibility of a systems engineer to refine them, and to determine, along with other engineers, the best engineering for a task. At this indicate starting with a trade study, systems technology encourages the use of weighted choices to determine the best option. A decision matrix, or Pugh method, is one mode (QFD is another) to make this choice while because all criteria that are important. The trade study in plow informs the design, which again affects graphic representations of the system (without changing the requirements). In an SE procedure, this stage represents the iterative stride that is carried out until a viable solution is found. A decision matrix is oftentimes populated using techniques such every bit statistical analysis, reliability analysis, system dynamics (feedback control), and optimization methods.

Other tools [edit]

Systems Modeling Language (SysML), a modeling linguistic communication used for systems engineering science applications, supports the specification, analysis, design, verification and validation of a wide range of circuitous systems.^[45]

Lifecycle Modeling Language (LML), is an open up-standard modeling language designed for systems engineering that supports the full lifecycle: conceptual, utilization, back up and retirement stages.^[46]

Related fields and sub-fields [edit]

Many related fields may be considered tightly coupled to systems technology. The post-obit areas take contributed to the development of systems engineering as a singled-out entity:

Cerebral systems engineering: Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is a specific approach to the clarification and assay of man-machine systems or sociotechnical systems.^[47] The three main themes of CSE are how humans cope with complexity, how work is accomplished by the use of artifacts, and how human-machine systems and socio-technical systems tin can be described every bit joint cognitive systems. CSE has since its get-go get a recognized scientific discipline, sometimes also referred to as cognitive engineering science. The concept of a Joint Cognitive System (JCS) has in item become widely used every bit a way of understanding how circuitous socio-technical systems can exist described with varying degrees of resolution. The more than twenty years of feel with CSE has been described extensively.^[48] ^[49]
Configuration management: Like systems technology, configuration management as good in the defense and aerospace industry is a broad systems-level practice. The field parallels the taskings of systems engineering; where systems engineering deals with requirements development, allotment to development items and verification, configuration management deals with requirements capture, traceability to the development item, and audit of development item to ensure that it has accomplished the desired functionality that systems engineering science and/or Examination and Verification Engineering have proven out through objective testing.
Control applied science: Control engineering and its design and implementation of control systems, used extensively in nearly every industry, is a large sub-field of systems engineering. The cruise control on an automobile and the guidance system for a ballistic missile are two examples. Command systems theory is an active field of practical mathematics involving the investigation of solution spaces and the development of new methods for the assay of the command process.
Industrial technology: Industrial engineering is a branch of technology that concerns the development, improvement, implementation and evaluation of integrated systems of people, coin, knowledge, information, equipment, energy, material and process. Industrial engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering assay and synthesis, as well every bit mathematical, physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering science analysis and blueprint to specify, predict, and evaluate results obtained from such systems.
Interface design: Interface design and its specification are concerned with assuring that the pieces of a system connect and inter-operate with other parts of the organisation and with external systems every bit necessary. Interface design also includes assuring that arrangement interfaces be able to accept new features, including mechanical, electrical and logical interfaces, including reserved wires, plug-space, command codes and $.25 in communication protocols. This is known as extensibility. Human-Figurer Interaction (HCI) or Human-Motorcar Interface (HMI) is some other attribute of interface design, and is a critical attribute of modern systems applied science. Systems engineering principles are practical in the pattern of communication protocols for local area networks and wide area networks.
Mechatronic technology: Mechatronic engineering, similar systems engineering, is a multidisciplinary field of engineering that uses dynamical systems modeling to limited tangible constructs. In that regard information technology is well-nigh indistinguishable from Systems Applied science, but what sets it apart is the focus on smaller details rather than larger generalizations and relationships. As such, both fields are distinguished by the scope of their projects rather than the methodology of their practice.
Operations research: Operations research supports systems engineering. The tools of operations enquiry are used in systems assay, decision making, and trade studies. Several schools teach SE courses within the operations research or industrial engineering section,^{[ citation needed ]} highlighting the role systems engineering plays in circuitous projects. Operations research, briefly, is concerned with the optimization of a process under multiple constraints.^[50]
Functioning engineering: Performance technology is the subject field of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for performance throughout its life. Performance is usually defined as the speed with which a certain functioning is executed, or the capability of executing a number of such operations in a unit of time. Performance may be degraded when operations queued to execute is throttled by express system chapters. For example, the performance of a parcel-switched network is characterized by the end-to-terminate parcel transit delay, or the number of packets switched in an 60 minutes. The design of high-performance systems uses belittling or simulation modeling, whereas the delivery of high-functioning implementation involves thorough operation testing. Performance applied science relies heavily on statistics, queueing theory and probability theory for its tools and processes.
Program management and project direction: Program management (or program management) has many similarities with systems engineering, but has broader-based origins than the engineering ones of systems engineering. Project management is too closely related to both plan management and systems engineering science.
Proposal technology: Proposal applied science is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to design, construct, and operate a toll-effective proposal development system. Basically, proposal applied science uses the "systems engineering science process" to create a price-effective proposal and increment the odds of a successful proposal.
Reliability engineering science: Reliability engineering is the discipline of ensuring a system meets client expectations for reliability throughout its life; i.east., it does not fail more frequently than expected. Adjacent to prediction of failure, information technology is simply as much about prevention of failure. Reliability engineering applies to all aspects of the system. It is closely associated with maintainability, availability (dependability or RAMS preferred by some), and logistics engineering. Reliability engineering is ever a critical component of prophylactic engineering, as in failure modes and furnishings analysis (FMEA) and hazard fault tree analysis, and of security engineering.
Risk Management: Risk management, the practise of assessing and dealing with take chances is ane of the interdisciplinary parts of Systems Technology. In evolution, acquisition, or operational activities, the inclusion of hazard in tradeoff with cost, schedule, and performance features, involves the iterative circuitous configuration management of traceability and evaluation to the scheduling and requirements management across domains and for the arrangement lifecycle that requires the interdisciplinary technical approach of systems engineering. Systems Engineering has Take chances Management define, tailor, implement, and monitor a structured procedure for risk direction which is integrated to the overall try.^[51]
Safety applied science: The techniques of condom engineering may be practical by not-specialist engineers in designing circuitous systems to minimize the probability of safety-critical failures. The "System Safe Engineering" part helps to identify "safety hazards" in emerging designs, and may assist with techniques to "mitigate" the effects of (potentially) hazardous conditions that cannot be designed out of systems.
Scheduling: Scheduling is one of the systems applied science support tools every bit a practise and particular in assessing interdisciplinary concerns under configuration management. In particular the direct relationship of resources, operation features, and chance to duration of a task or the dependency links amidst tasks and impacts across the organization lifecycle are systems applied science concerns.
Security engineering: Security engineering tin be viewed every bit an interdisciplinary field that integrates the customs of practice for control systems blueprint, reliability, safety and systems engineering. It may involve such sub-specialties as authentication of system users, system targets and others: people, objects and processes.
Software engineering science: From its ancestry, software applied science has helped shape modern systems engineering do. The techniques used in the handling of the complexities of big software-intensive systems take had a major effect on the shaping and reshaping of the tools, methods and processes of Systems Engineering.

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^ (come across articles for discussion: [7] and "Archived copy". Archived from the original on twenty September 2005. Retrieved xxx Nov 2005. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link))
^ "Risk Management Toolkit". MITRE, SE Process Function. Retrieved 8 September 2016.

External links [edit]

ICSEng homepage.
INCOSE homepage.
INCOSE United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland homepage
PPI SE Goldmine homepage
Systems Engineering Torso of Knowledge
Systems Technology Tools List of systems technology tools
AcqNotes DoD Systems Engineering Overview
NDIA Systems Engineering Division

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_engineering